How Is Gold Formed Origins and Process

Gold is a chemical element easily recognized by its yellow metallic color. It is valuable because of its rarity, resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, malleability, ductility, and beauty. If you ask people where gold comes from, most will say you obtain it from a mine, pan for flakes in a stream, or extract it from seawater. However, the true origin of the element predates the formation of the Earth. Key Takeaways: How Is Gold Formed? Scientists believe all the gold on Earth formed in supernovae and neutron star collisions that occurred before the solar system formed. In these events, gold formed during the r-process.Gold sank to the Earths core during the planets formation. Its only accessible today because of asteroid bombardment.Theoretically, its possible to form gold by the nuclear processes of fusion, fission, and radioactive decay. Its easiest for scientists to transmute gold by bombarding the heavier element mercury and producing gold via decay.Gold cannot be produced via chemistry or alchemy. Chemical reactions cannot change the number of protons within an atom. The proton number or atomic number defines an elements identity. Natural Gold Formation While nuclear fusion within the Sun makes many elements, the Sun cannot synthesize gold. The considerable energy required to make gold only occurs when stars explode in a supernova or when neutron stars collide. Under these extreme conditions, heavy elements form via the rapid neutron-capture process or r-process. A supernova has enough energy and neutrons to synthesize gold. gremlin / Getty Images Where Does Gold Occur? All of the gold found on Earth came from the debris of dead stars. As the Earth formed, heavy elements such as iron and gold sank toward the planets core. If no other event had occurred, there would be no gold in the Earths crust. But, around 4 billion years ago, Earth was bombarded by asteroid impacts. These impacts stirred the deeper layers of the planet and forced some gold into the mantle and crust. Some gold may be found in rock ores. It make occur as flakes, as the pure native element, and with silver in the natural alloy electrum. Erosion frees the gold from other minerals. Since gold is heavy, it sinks and accumulates in stream beds, alluvial deposits, and the ocean. Earthquakes play an important role, as a shifting fault rapidly decompresses mineral-rich water. When the water vaporizes, veins of quartz and gold deposit onto rock surfaces. A similar process occurs within volcanoes. How Much Gold Is in the World? The amount of gold extracted from the Earth is a tiny fraction of its total mass. In 2016, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated 5,726,000,000 troy ounces or 196,320 U.S. tons had been produced since the dawn of civilization. About 85% of this gold remains in circulation. Because gold is so dense (19.32 grams per cubic centimeter), it does not take up much space for its mass. In fact, if you melted all the gold mined to date, youd wind up with a cube about 60 feet across! Nevertheless, gold accounts for a few parts per billion of the mass of the Earths crust. While its not economically feasible to extract much gold, there are about 1 million tons of gold in the top kilometer of the Earths surface. The abundance of gold in the mantle and core is unknown, but it greatly exceeds the amount in the crust. Synthesizing the Element Gold Attempts by alchemists to turn lead (or other elements) into gold were unsuccessful because no chemical reaction can change one element into another. Chemical reactions involve a transfer of electrons between elements, which may produce different ions of an element, but the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is what defines its element. All atoms of gold contain 79 protons, so the atomic number of gold is 79. Its possible to transmute mercury into gold by making it unstable so it decays. JacobH / Getty Images Making gold isnt as simple as directly adding or subtracting protons from other elements. The most common method of changing one element into another (transmutation) is to add neutrons to another element. Neutrons change the isotope of an element, potentially making the atoms unstable enough to break apart via radioactive decay. Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka first synthesized gold by bombarding mercury with neutrons in 1924. While transmuting mercury into gold is easiest, gold can be made from other elements—even lead! Soviet scientists accidentally turned the lead shielding of a nuclear reactor into gold in 1972 and Glenn Seabord transmuted a trace of gold from lead in 1980. Thermonuclear weapon explosions produce neutron captures similar to the r-process in stars. While such events are not a practical way to synthesize gold, nuclear testing did lead to the discovery of the heavy elements einsteinium (atomic number 99) and fermium (atomic number 100). Sources McHugh, J. B. (1988). Concentration of gold in natural waters. Journal of Geochemical Exploration. 30 (1–3): 85–94. doi:10.1016/0375-6742(88)90051-9Miethe, A. (1924). Der Zerfall des Quecksilberatoms. Die Naturwissenschaften. 12 (29): 597–598. doi:10.1007/BF01505547Seeger, Philip A.; Fowler, William A.; Clayton, Donald D. (1965). Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements by Neutron Capture. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 11: 121. doi:10.1086/190111Sherr, R.; Bainbridge, K. T. Anderson, H. H. (1941). Transmutation of Mercury by Fast Neutrons. Physical Review. 60 (7): 473–479. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.60.473Willbold, Matthias; Elliott, Tim; Moorbath, Stephen (2011). The tungsten isotopic composition of the Earths mantle before the terminal bombardment. Nature. 477 (7363): 195–8. doi:10.1038/nature10399

The War Of The Holy Roman Empire - 1170 Words

The Thirty Years War initiated when Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Bohemia tried to restrain the religious activities of his subjects, triggering a rebellion among Protestants. The war included the major powers of Europe, with Sweden, France, Spain, and Austria all conducting campaigns mainly on German soil. The war was partially known for the slaughters committed by mercenary soldiers, the war ended with a series of contracts that made up the Peace of Westphalia. The outcome restructured the religious and political map of central Europe, setting the stage for the old national Roman Catholic empire to yield to a community of self-governing states. For the occurrence of the war, the developing catastrophe of the Holy Roman Empire was of vital significance. The crisis had a legitimate and governmental as well as a religious component. The emperor s privileges had never been evidently described. A ruler who knew how to misuse his significant informal powers of benefaction could poss ess a major deal of authority, but a corruptible monarch could effortlessly be diminished to a simple figurehead. This was definitively Rudolf II s fate throughout the final decade of his reign. The aging emperor, who was rationally unstable, was doubted by both Catholics and Protestants. Besides, he had managed to alienate his own family. The power void produced by the failure of his authority allowed determined princes such as Maximilian I, the duke of Bavaria, or Frederick V, the elector ofShow MoreRelatedThirty Years’ War The Thirty Years War was a series of wars fought in the Holy Roman empire,900 Words   |  4 PagesThirty Years’ War The Thirty Years War was a series of wars fought in the Holy Roman empire, involving most of the countries within, the war lasted 30 years. This war massively affected europe and created a cultural divide between catholics and protestants. Philip III of Spain attempted to continue the foreign policy views of his father, Philip II, which basically meant that Spain had to be kept ready for war. Thus in 1618, when Ferdinand II, heir apparent to the throne of Bohemia, began to slashRead More30 Years War Essay1416 Words   |  6 Pagesstages of the Thirty Years War, which was fought mostly in the Holy Roman Empire (modern Germany), involved nearly all of the major powers of Europe, and was a war that used religion as a cover-up for politics. The war caused the demise of the Holy Roman Empire, and the rise of France as the new power in Europe. During the war new technologies also were used. The Thirty Years War was ended by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. Before the war, the Holy Roman Empire already began to have its strugglesRead MoreThe Legacy Of The Thirty Years War981 Words   |  4 PagesThe Thirty Years War was an enormous conflict the likes of which Europe had never seen before. 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The thirty years war started with religious rivalries between Catholics and Protestants with some political ambitions, but eventually developed mainly into a war of dynastic ambitions with many groups attempting to gainRead More The Impact of Charlemagne Upon Europe Essay1605 Words   |  7 Pagesrise to power. The triumphs of his past lineage prepared him to take on the task of governing the Frankish Empire, and defending it from invaders. Charlemagne accomplished much during his supremacy. He not only brought education back into medieval Europe, but also invented an efficient way to govern his people. His conquests against the many adversaries of the Holy Roman Empire expanded his empire across the majority of Europe. His conquests also formed strong ties between the Catholic Church and theRead MoreSummary of People and Empires844 Words   |  3 PagesSummary of People and Empires. 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Pediatric Physical Therapy Posture in a Sitting System

Question: Describe about the Pediatric Physical Therapy for posture in a sitting system? Answer: Assessment of a posture in a sitting system become critical since most of the patients with deformities are completely unable to walk or may be able to walk for a short distance. Therefore, it is important to start with, the assessment of posture of disable children in a seating system. Assistive technology (AT), as well as AT services for the children who are suffering from disabilities, are now considered as the part of the "pediatric physical therapy practice." It is observed that the increasing availability of technology as well as federal legislation, which supports the use of Assistive Technology (Sweeney et al., 2010). The seating system and its apparatus should be prepared in such a way that support the child in his or her specific activity as well as it allows the child to roam independently. To develop the seating system, it is important to start with the seating assessment (Brien Sveistrup, 2011). During seating assessment, the clinicians need to examine both the seating position and supine of the children. Assistance may be needed to stabilize the body parts while assessing the seating posture. The clinician must examine the lumber movement while the child is in the supine position (Frank et al., 2011). If the examiner found, the pelvic movement is present then it becomes easy to determine the impact of leg positioning on the pelvis. The clinician needs to make the patient is sitting on a surface, which has the thin top in order to measure the knees to flex. This is helpful in the assessment of posture in a seating system. Anti-thrust seat The anti-thrust seat has several features, which are specially designed to support the children with disabilities as well as the adults with neuromuscular or neurological impairment. The anti-thrust seat is prescribed to the patients who are suffering from a severe disorder in their sitting position (Downey Rapport, 2012). This is helpful for the patient as its dense foam helps to rise the front of the seat to support the pelvis set back in the seat. On the other hand, the top layer of "Visco foam is helpful to add comfort and optimal support. The Anti-Thrust Seat is fully customizable to provide full comfort to the patient. It is found that an Anti-Thrust Seat cups the pelvis with an anterior, which is block formed (Ragonesi et al., 2010). If the seat is too deep, then the undersurface of the thigh need to be provided extra support. Anteriorly tipping the seat From previous researches, it is found that people who are suffering from spinal cord injury, as well as neural tube defect, pointed out that anteriorly tipping the seat of 200 is helpful to reduce the pressure under the pelvis. From different research papers, it is found that there is a lack of evidence to guide and support the use of anteriorly tipping the seat for the people with neuromuscular impairment as well as neurological problems (Ganley et al., 2011). No studies identified the impact of the seat tilt on people with muscular dystrophy. However, it is discovered that patients who are suffering from cerebral palsy become benefited from the use of anteriorly tipping of seat. Lateral trunk support Lateral trunk support is considered as the dynamic and innovative body support, which is designed to provide flexibility and unparallel comfort. Most of the patients who are suffering from neurological disabilities such as cerebral palsy are mostly recommended for the use of Lateral trunk support (Fowler et al., 2010). There are three points for trunk stabilization such as the lateral trunk, the anterior trunk, and the posterior trunk. Good posture refers to the result of the balancing of the skeleton with the gravity. The lateral trunk support help to maintain an ideal posture of the patient, which includes neutral alignment, level shoulders, the shoulder is slightly posterior (at 1000) to the pelvis and maintain a neutral pelvis (Umphred et al., 2013). The long-term effect of using lateral trunk support is to increase minimize the orthopedic consequences, increase the mobility of the user, normalize muscle tone, provide pressure relief and reduce the requirements for the active mus cle. Abductor pommel According to the general guidelines of the physicians, symmetrical hip abduction is considered as one of the well versed and important conditions for proper posture. From studies, it is found that abduction pommel is useful to allow equal weight bearing through both thighs, ischial tuberosities, which in turn permit better distribution of pressure (Bo et al., 2014). The abductor device is prescribed to the patients who are suffering from postural deformities. Not only adults but also the children are recommended to use abductor pommel. The abductor pommel is considered as the effective device, which can be used in different situations and therefore, recommended by most of the physicians. Scheuemanns disease Scheuemanns disease is known as the self-limiting skeletal disorder, which happens in childhood. This disease was named after Holger Werfel Scheuemanns. Scheuemanns disease signifies the physical condition where the vertebrae show growth in an uneven manner respect to the sagittal plane (Bhat et al., 2011). In this case, the posterior angel is often become larger than the anterior. It is found that the uneven growth of the vertebrae can result in the "wedging" shape, which is the signature of kyphosis disease. Etiology Scheuermanns disease is considered as a condition, which develops increased thoracic kyphosis (40). This disease shows true postural changes of 50 wedging within the thoracic vertebra (in all of three vertebrae, which are adjacent). The apices are commonly found between T7 and T9. However, it is also found that the localized deformity in this caused by this disease is painless (Wiart et al., 2010). It is also discovered that there are strong hereditary pattern remains of the Scheuermanns disease. The changes caused in the disc and vertebra is recognized to reflect the physical stress. Clinically most of the children are affected by the Scheuermanns disease. In most of the cases, children between 10-15 are diagnosed with Scheuermanns disease. There are several characteristics found in the patient with Scheuermanns disease, such as irregular lower and upper vertebral endplates, the loss of disc space height, wedging of vertebrae more than 100. In addition, it is also found that the pre sence of hyperkyphosis is more than 400. Clinical presentation There are different clinical symptoms showed by the Scheuermanns disease. Such as- Patient with Scheuermanns disease presents kyphotic deformity, which is demonstrated best in the forward flexed position. Decrease flexibility of the spine, which showed the structural nature of kyphotic deformity. The patient may feel palpation or tenderness below and above the apex of kyphosis. Lower thoracic kyphosis is observed at the thoracolumbar junction. The patient may show the presence of Hamstring tightness. The patient may show hyperlordosis in the lumbar spine. However, it is also found that neurologic deficits are very rare in the case of Scheuermanns disease. Intervention The treatment of Scheuermanns disease is found to very controversial. Some of the researchers think that the thorasic Scheuermanns disease is benign, which emphasize that most of the clinicians show their reluctant towards the treatment of the Scheuermanns disease. On the other hand, in some cases clinicians recommended some exercises; however, those are very painful. Patients who are suffering from the mild and non-progressive disease could be treated with reducing weight and relieve from weight bearing stress (Palisano et al., 2012). Patients with Scheuermanns disease are always recommended not to perform any strenuous activity. Although in some cases exercise proved as beneficial, it is also found that exercise alone cannot help to relieve the patient from the pain of disease. In addition, using of the brace was also proved as significant in order to relieve the patient from suffering. Most of the clinicians recommended for duPont kyphosis brace and modified Milwaukee brace. Apart from these interventions, there are also several surgical interventions to treat the disease. However, most of the patients do not readily accept surgery as it is painful and produce unacceptable cosmetic appearance. Cord Decompression is introduced for the patients who have neurologic deficits or increased kyphotic angulation though it is very rare. If the instrumentation is failed, then pseudoarthrosis can occur (Gordon et al., 2011). People who were treated with surgery or bracing in both cases experienced relief; however, the disease is not cured. The other factors that can help in the treatment are conservative treatment, which may include the use of body cast plus brace as well as exercise regimen and the presence of the Risser sign of skeletal maturity. Femoral anteversion is known as inward twisting of the femur (thighbone, which is located between knee and hip). This disease causes the feet, the knees of the child turn inward, and the appearance looked like pigeon-toed (Oetgen Peden, 2012). According to the case study, the foot progression angle is -350, which emphasize that the patient with femoral anteversion have a complete distortion of feet, however, it is not very much effective for the children with normal bone alignment. In this case, the physician can recommend proper exercise for the patient. According to the case study, the internal rotation of the hip is 750, which is not normal. The internal rotation of the hip is 750 emphasize the abnormal limb structure of the child with femoral anteversion. To help the child specific exercises can be recommended. According to the case study, external rotation of the hip is 200, which can cause pigeon shaped posture for the child who is suffering from femoral anteversion. In this condition, the physician can suggest using brace. However, a child with normal bone alignment does not need any medical intervention. According to the case study, the thigh-foot angle is -50, which can also form pigeon like posture for the child who is suffering from femoral anteversion. In this condition, the physician can suggest using brace. However, a child with normal bone alignment does not need any medical intervention. From studies, it is observed that most of the children tend to toe-walk for some time when they first started walking independently. This is quiet natural and does not consider as the symptoms of cerebral palsy. This is idiopathic toe-walking (ITW) and can be treated by therapeutic exercises (Williams et al., 2010). Primarily toe walking consider as a gait abnormality, which is characterized by an absence of normal heel strike (heel to floor contact) by both feet. Toe walking shows several etiologies, which include severe neuromuscular disease to idiosyncratic disease. The treatment of toe walking depends on the severity of the abnormality and the age of the children (patients). There are two types of medical interventions can be taken to treat toe walking, such as medical therapy and surgical therapy. The non-operative or conventional medical treatment of toe walking includes orthotics, casting, stretching and chemodenervation. In chemodenervation treatment botulinum toxin (BOTOX) could be used (Zwicker et al., 2012). However, the success of these treatment depends on the age of the patient. Stretching is the first treatment used by the physician as this process is least invasive; however the success of treating idiopathic toe walking is very limited. On the other hand, serial casting is used to stretch the Achilles tendon. These casts can easily change weekly, depending on the progress level. A custom orthotic such as AFO (ankle-foot orthosis) could be used to treat ITW, especially for children. However, if the conventional methods of treatment failed, then surgical therapy can be used to treat ITW. Through the medical incision, an open heel-cord lengtheni ng could be done. Another method is open and percutaneous technique, which is also very popular. The spastic diplegia is also known as Littles disease. The spastic diplegia is a form of cerebral palsy just like idiopathic toe walking. The spastic diplegia is considered as a chronic neuromuscular condition of spasticity as well as hypertonia. Although these two diseases has many similarities, it is found that there are also several differences (Gordon et al., 2011). The gait pattern observed in children with idiopathic toe walking is not similar with those who are suffering from spastic diplegia. In spastic diplegia, it is observed that the lower parts (muscles and motors of the lower limbs) are stiffened. On the other hand, toe walking could be caused due to the habit of the children and do not stiffen the lower limbs as much as spastic diplegia do. Reference Bhat, A. N., Landa, R. J., Galloway, J. C. C. (2011). Current perspectives on motor functioning in infants, children, and adults with autism spectrum disorders.Physical Therapy,91(7), 1116-1129. Bo, K., Berghmans, B., Morkved, S., Van Kampen, M. (2014).Evidence-based physical therapy for the pelvic floor: bridging science and clinical practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Brien, M., Sveistrup, H. (2011). An intensive virtual reality program improves functional balance and mobility of adolescents with cerebral palsy.Pediatric Physical Therapy,23(3), 258-266. Downey, R., Rapport, M. J. K. (2012). Motor activity in children with autism: a review of current literature.Pediatric Physical Therapy,24(1), 2-20. Fowler, E. G., Knutson, L. M., DeMuth, S. K., Siebert, K. L., Simms, V. D., Sugi, M. H., ... Physical Therapy Clinical Research Network (PTClinResNet. (2010). Pediatric endurance and limb strengthening (PEDALS) for children with cerebral palsy using stationary cycling: a randomized controlled trial.Physical therapy,90(3), 367-381. Frank, A., McCloskey, S., Dole, R. L. (2011). Effect of hippotherapy on perceived self-competence and participation in a child with cerebral palsy.Pediatric Physical Therapy,23(3), 301-308. Ganley, K. J., Paterno, M. V., Miles, C., Stout, J., Brawner, L., Girolami, G., Warren, M. (2011). Health-related fitness in children and adolescents.Pediatric physical therapy,23(3), 208-220. Gordon, A. M., Hung, Y. C., Brandao, M., Ferre, C. L., Kuo, H. C., Friel, K., ... Charles, J. R. (2011). Bimanual Training and Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy in Children With Hemiplegic Cerebral Palsy A Randomized Trial.Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair,25(8), 692-702. Oetgen, M. E., Peden, S. (2012). Idiopathic toe walking.Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons,20(5), 292-300. Palisano, R. J., Chiarello, L. A., King, G. A., Novak, I., Stoner, T., Fiss, A. (2012). Participation-based therapy for children with physical disabilities.Disability and rehabilitation,34(12), 1041-1052. Ragonesi, C. B., Chen, X., Agrawal, S., Galloway, J. C. (2010). Power mobility and socialization in preschool: a case study of a child with cerebral palsy.Pediatric Physical Therapy,22(3), 322-329. Sweeney, J. K., Heriza, C. B., Blanchard, Y., Dusing, S. C. (2010). Neonatal physical therapy. Part II: Practice frameworks and evidence-based practice guidelines.Pediatric Physical Therapy,22(1), 2-16. Umphred, D. A., Lazaro, R. T., Roller, M., Burton, G. (Eds.). (2013).Neurological rehabilitation. Elsevier Health Sciences. Wiart, L., Ray, L., Darrah, J., Magill-Evans, J. (2010). Parents' perspectives on occupational therapy and physical therapy goals for children with cerebral palsy.Disability and rehabilitation,32(3), 248-258. Williams, C. M., Tinley, P., Curtin, M. (2010). Idiopathic toe walking and sensory processing dysfunction.J Foot Ankle Res,3(1), 16-16. Zwicker, J. G., Missiuna, C., Harris, S. R., Boyd, L. A. (2012). Developmental coordination disorder: a review and update.European Journal of Paediatric Neurology,16(6), 573-581.

Lord of the Flies Outline free essay sample

The conch shell becomes a tool or device to stop conflict among the people and stabilize authority. a. â€Å"We ought to have more rules. Where the conch is, that’s a meeting. † (Golding, 42) i. When Maurice talks at Piggy’s face when Piggy has the authority to talk which escalates into a heated discussion, Ralph comes in to maintain order with the conch shell. ii. The people should follow and respect the conch. iii. The conch shell gives the person holding it authority over everyone and everyone needs to respect what the person says. 3. The conch shell turns into a symbol of authority and power. Whoever in control of conch has authority over the people. a. â€Å"I’ll give the conch to the next person to speak. He can hold it when he’s speaking. But. Look. And he won’t be interrupted. Except by me. † (Golding, 33) i. Ralph establishes himself as a leader of the people when he states that only he can interrupt the person with conch. We will write a custom essay sample on Lord of the Flies Outline or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page ii. The possession of the conch symbolizes the democratic traditions by giving every person a chance to make their voice be heard. iii. Throughout the novel there is a constant struggle in authority among the people. Possession of the conch gives the person authority and set rules. 4. Ralph uses the conch to ensure the People’s safety and gives them hope. a. â€Å"The simple statement, unbacked by any proof but the weight of Ralph’s new authority, brought light and happiness. He had to wave the conch before he could make them hear them. † (Golding, 37) i. The conch starts to give hope to the people. ii. Using the authority of the conch, Ralph looks out for the people by building a fire to get the attention of a ship to rescue them. The Conch again shows democratic traditions. iii. Golding wants the conch to represent democratic ideals while still showing authority and making sure the one with authority does what’s right for the good of the people. 5. Apart from governing elements such as order and authority, the conch represented civilization or society that is strong but fragile. a. â€Å"Careful! You’ll break it† (Golding, 15) I. Piggy points out the delicacy of the conch but Piggy’s comment shows the fragility of civilization. II. One wrong act can break the conch and ultimately destroy civilization. III. This shows that the conch is valuable and precious. Destruction of the conch would bring upon anarchy. Golding wants to show the reader how precious and fragile civilization is through the conch shell. 6. Ralph brings the people together as one whole society or civilization and maintains order and authority along with this civilization. a. â€Å"We need an assembly. Not for fun. Not for laughing and falling off the log†¦not for making jokes, or for†¦cleverness. Not for these things. But to put things straight. † (Golding, 79) i. The conch is basically used to govern the people of the island. ii. The conch symbolizes cooperation and a civilization by bringing the people together ensuring authority and order through doing what is right for the community as a whole. iii. Without maintaining this balance, the conch shell will fall apart and tear civilization into turmoil and anarchy. 7. The conch shell came to represent the order, authority and civilization. The conch shell is symbolized as fragile and delicate. The shell is used to maintain order and give authority. Through this symbolism the conch shell was like a reflection of a democratic society where the people would be together as one community and cooperate. This democratic society would have order and have a leader who would do what is right for the benefit of the people and respect their voices. Since this conch was symbolized as fragile, if the conch broke then this democratic society would be destroyed and turn into an anarchy with no laws or rules or authority. Golding wants the conch shell to be preserved and protected, so no harm can be done to do this and maintain power and civilization. Ralph uses the conch to govern the people and shows them the importance of the conch. In a way, Ralph could be just like the conch shell.